Report on trends in First Nations communities, 1981 to 2016

1. Education

The education component is composed of the following 2 variables:

• high school plus: the proportion of a community's population, 20 years and over, that has obtained at least a high school certificate. For simplicity's sake, this proportion is often referred to in this document as high school completion rate, even though it includes individuals who did not obtain a high school certificate, but did acquire a credential beyond the high school level
• university: the proportion of a community's population, 25 years and over, that has obtained a university degree at the bachelor's level or higher

The high school plus variable accounts for two thirds of the education component, while the university variable accounts for one third.

2. Labour force activity

The labour force activity component is composed of the following 2 equally-weighted variables:

• labour force participation: the proportion of a community's population, aged 20 to 64, that was involved in the labour force during the week preceding census day, that is census reference week.
• employment: the percentage of a community's labour force participants, aged 20 to 64, that were employed during census reference week.

3. Income

The income component of the CWB index is defined in terms of total income per capita, in accordance with the following formula:

Description of the income score

The income score is equal to the difference between the logarithm of the income per capita and the logarithm of $2,650 divided by difference between the logarithm of $75,000 and logarithm of $2,650 then multiplied by 100.

The formula maps each community's income per capita onto a theoretical range. Doing so allows income per capita to be expressed as a percentage, which is the metric in which the other components of the index are naturally expressed. A range of $2,000 to $40,000 dollars was originally selected when the index was first calculated in 2004. However, it has since been adjusted based on the 2016 census to be $2,650 to $75,000. This range was selected because it coincides with the approximate lowest and highest incomes per capita found in Canadian communities in 2016. In the few cases where a community's income per capita fell outside of this range, it was recoded to either $2,650 or $75,000. Additionally, this range will be re-evaluated for each CWB cycle to confirm its continued appropriateness

It should be noted that the formula converts dollars of income per capita into logarithms. This is done to account for the diminishing marginal utility of income. According to this principle, those who occupy lower income strata will benefit more from additional income than those at higher income levels (Cooke, 2007, p. 29).

4. Housing

The housing component comprises equally-weighted indicators of housing quantity and quality:

• housing quantity: the proportion of a community's population living in dwellings that are not crowded as measured by having no more than one person per room
• housing quality: the proportion of a community's population living in a dwelling that is not in need of major repairs

1. Inflation

Owing to inflation, the value of a dollar tends to decrease over time. To ensure that the CWB is measuring actual changes in income rather than the effects of inflation, income data from the 1981 to 2006 censuses and the 2011 National Household Survey were adjusted using the Consumer Price Index. Since 2016 is the reference year for the CWB time series, no adjustment was required to those income data.

2. Missing data

Scores for some communities are missing from some or all of the 7 CWB cycles (1981, 1991, 1996, 2001, 2006, 2011 and 2016). As indicated above, scores may be missing for a community in a given year because of non-participation in the census, inadequate data quality or insufficient population size. This variation in the number of communities per census year should be considered when comparing CWB scores over time.

3. Changes in community boundaries

Communities can experience boundary changes between censuses. They can merge with other communities, divide into 2 or more communities, or annex parts of other communities. When this happens, it can be difficult to know what caused a change in a community's CWB index score from one CWB cycle to the next. For example, if a community's score went from 70 in 1981 to 80 in 1991 and that community experienced a boundary change in which it annexed part of another community, the improved CWB score could have been the result of a real change in the well-being of the original community or a result of previously existing higher well-being in the annexed area or a combination of both.

Analyses based on 2016 data revealed that boundary changes had little effect on national or regional average CWB scores. While these national and regional averages may be safely compared across time, boundary changes can seriously impact the comparability of individual communities across time. Likewise, sensitivity analyses were based on only 3 groupings of communities: First Nations, Inuit and other Canadian communities. Researchers may decide to group communities in different ways. The extent to which boundary changes affect the average scores of different community groupings is unknown. Researchers who wish to compare individual communities or user-defined groups of communities across time are encouraged to consider the possible effects of boundary changes.

4. Sampling error

The CWB Indices of 1981 to 2006 were based on the long form of the census. These censuses were distributed to all households in First Nations, Inuit and remote communities and to a sample of one fifth of households in non-Indigenous communities. The 2011 CWB index was based on the National Household Survey. It was distributed to all households in First Nations, Inuit and remote communities and to a sample of one third of households in non-Indigenous communities but was voluntary in nature. Finally, the 2016 CWB index was based on the 2016 long-form census, which was distributed in all Indigenous households and remote communities, as well as to a sample of 1 in 4 households in non-Indigenous communities. The increase in sampling from previous cycles was introduced to reduce the risk of lower participation resulting from the voluntary nature of the 2011 National Household Survey. For a sampled community, it is possible that a fluctuation (or lack thereof) in its CWB score from one CWB cycle to the next is the result of sampling error. It is difficult to define the impact of sampling error on a given community's score in a given year, though impact generally decreases as the population of a community increases. Researchers are reminded to interpret individual communities' CWB scores with caution and to emphasize general trends rather than cycle-to-cycle fluctuations.

Consult Statistics Canada's Sampling and Weighting Technical Report for more detailed information on the sampling error.

5. Changes to the education questions

In 2006, Statistics Canada changed the census questions related to education. First, the single question that had been used to capture educational attainment was replaced with a series of questions. Statistics Canada made the change "to address suspected underreporting of high school completions" (Statistics Canada, 2008).

Second, the education questions were reformulated to focus on credentials obtained at the high school level and higher. Educational attainment that did not result in a credential (such as completion of elementary school or partial completion of high school or post-secondary programs) was no longer captured.

Although education is defined in the exact same way in each cycle of the CWB, it is possible that the methodological changes introduced in 2006 impacted the comparability of the education scores. Specifically, these changes may have caused an artificially large jump in the average high school completion rate for non-Indigenous communities between 2001 and 2006. This jump did not occur in First Nations or Inuit communities' average scores. As a result, the education gaps between Indigenous and non-Indigenous communities widened between 2001 and 2006. Although this widening of the education gap may have been a statistical artifact, it is notable that the narrowing of the gap that had been observed prior to 2001 did not resume after 2006.

Community Well-Being index scores

Figure 1 plots the average scores for First Nations and Non-Indigenous communities from 1981 to 2016.

During this time, the average CWB scores for First Nations communities climbed by 13.4 points, from 45 points in 1981 to 58.4 points in 2016. The recent 2016 score represents a 2-point increase from the 56.4 points recorded in 2011, which is the greatest increase in First Nations average CWB scores since 2001.

The 2016 gap in average CWB scores between First Nations and non-Indigenous communities was substantial. In 2016, the average CWB score for First Nations communities was 19.1 points lower than the average score for non-Indigenous communities. This gap is a few points narrower than it was in 1981.

During the 1990s, First Nations communities improved slightly faster than non-Indigenous communities and the CWB gap narrowed. The reductions in the gap were largely reversed when non-Indigenous communities improved more than First Nations communities between 2001 and 2006. See Appendix 1 for a map of the 2016 CWB scores for First Nations communities.

This change may have been partially driven by a jump in non-Indigenous communities' high school completion rates. This jump should be interpreted with caution. The education questions on the census were changed in 2006, reducing the comparability of 2006 education data with data from previous censuses.

Source: Statistics Canada, Censuses of Population, 1981 to 2006, 2016 and National Household Survey, 2011.

Description of Figure 1: Community Well-Being averages over time, First Nations and non-Indigenous communities, 1981 to 2016

This line graph compares the average Community Well-Being (CWB) index scores of First Nations and non-Indigenous communities across Canada from 1981 to 2016.

• The average CWB index score for First Nations communities was 45 in 1981, 49.3 in 1991, 52.7 in 1996, 54.9 in 2001, 55.4 in 2006, 56.4 in 2011 and 58.4 in 2016
• The average CWB index score in non-Indigenous communities in Canada was 64.5 in 1981, 68 in 1991, 68.9 in 1996, 70.7 in 2001, 73.8 in 2006, 75.8 in 2011 and 77.5 in 2016

In addition to changes in average CWB scores, it is important to examine changes in individual communities' scores over time. This permits us to distinguish between a scenario where all communities experience slow but steady improvement in well-being and a scenario where communities experience erratic periods of boom and bust.

For example, imagine measuring well-being in only 2 communities: Community A and Community B. In 1981, Community A had a score of 0 and Community B had a score of 100. The average score for these 2 communities in 1981 would be 50. In 2016, the average score for these 2 communities was still 50, suggesting that well being remained stable for these communities between 1981 and 2016. When examining the individual communities' scores, however, in 2016, Community A had a score of 100 while Community B's score had dropped to 0. The boom and bust pattern of these communities was, therefore, masked by the fact that their average score stayed the same over time.

Table 1 provides the percentages of communities with CWB scores that increased or remained stable in each census period.

Most communities' scores changed very little from cycle to cycle. Consequently, the number of communities whose scores decrease versus those remaining stable or increasing is impacted by how rounding is applied when changes from cycle to cycle are calculated. The numbers in table 1 were calculated using the following formula, where the change from 2011 to 2016 is used as an example:

• if the 2016 CWB index score is greater than or equal to the 2011 CWB index score then the change from 2011 to 2016 of the CWB index score is considered stable or increased
• if the 2016 CWB index score is lower than the 2011 CWB index score then the change from 2011 to 2016 of the CWB index score has decreased

Across all community types, only a minority of communities experienced a decline to their CWB scores for all of the census periods examined. Notably, the CWB scores for more First Nations than non-Indigenous communities increased or remained stable between 1991 and 1996, while the opposite was true in all the other census periods.

These results suggest that between 1981 and 2016 slow but steady improvement was typical for the majority of both First Nations and non-Indigenous communities. Figure 2 provides additional evidence to this effect and demonstrates that very few communities fluctuated more than 10 points from 2011 to 2016.

Source: Statistics Canada, National Household Survey, 2011 and Census of Population, 2016.

Description of Figure 2: Change in individual First Nations and non-Indigenous communities' CWB Scores, 2011 to 2016

This bar graph compares the changes in individual scores for First Nations and non-Indigenous communities on the Community Well-Being (CWB) index in Canada, between 2011 and 2016.

Between 2011 and 2016, the average CWB change for First Nations was 2.1 points.

Between 2011 and 2016, the average CWB change for non-Indigenous communities was 1.7 points.

• 0% of 580 First Nations communities lost between 11 and 15 points inclusively.
• 3.80% of 580 First Nations communities lost between 6 and 10 points inclusively.
• 21.93% of 580 First Nations communities lost between 1 and 5 points inclusively.
• 47.84% of 580 First Nations communities gained between 0 and 4 points inclusively.
• 21.24% of 580 First Nations communities gained between 5 and 9 points inclusively.
• 4.84% of 580 First Nations communities gained between 10 and 14 points inclusively.
• 0.17% of 580 First Nations communities gained between 15 and 19 points inclusively.
• 0.17% of 580 First Nations communities gained between 20 and 24 points inclusively.
• 0% of 580 First Nations communities gained between 25 and 29 points inclusively.
  
• 0.06% of 3631 non-Indigenous communities lost between 16 and 20 points inclusively.
• 0.25% of 3631 non-Indigenous communities lost between 11 and 15 points inclusively.
• 1.96% of 3631 non-Indigenous communities lost between 6 and 10 points inclusively.
• 16.11% of 3631 non-Indigenous communities lost between 1 and 5 points inclusively.
• 67.09% of 3631 non-Indigenous communities gained between 0 and 4 points inclusively.
• 11.73% of 3631 non-Indigenous communities gained between 5 and 9 points inclusively.
• 2.42% of 3631 non-Indigenous communities gained between 10 and 14 points inclusively.
• 0.36% of 3631 non-Indigenous communities gained between 15 and 19 points inclusively.
• 0.3% of 3631 non-Indigenous communities gained between 20 and 24 points inclusively.
• 0% of 3631 non-Indigenous communities gained between 25 and 29 points inclusively.

Community Well-Being component scores, 1981 to 2016

The CWB is made up of 4 components: education, labour force activity, income and housing. Each can range from a low of 0 to a high of 100. Between 1981 and 2016, all communities observed increases to their education, labour force activity, income and housing scores. For both First Nations and non-Indigenous communities, the CWB component scores for the education and income components showed the greatest change over this 35-year time period, while the labour force activity and housing components fluctuated slightly and experienced only marginal gains over time.

Figure 3 shows that gaps remain to varying degrees between First Nations and non-Indigenous communities in each of these components in 2016. The gaps were narrower for the education and labour force activity components compared with those for housing and income. The gaps were calculated using unrounded numbers rather than those rounded to one tenth in the figure.

Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Canada, 2016.

Description of Figure 3: CWB component scores and gaps, First Nations and non-Indigenous communities, 2016

This bar graph compares the average scores of First Nations and non-Indigenous communities for the 4 components the Community Well-Being (CWB) index in Canada, 2016: education, labour force activity, income and housing.

• The average labour force activity score was 69.2 for First Nations communities and 84.1 for non-Indigenous communities for a gap of 14.9
• The average income score was 53.5 for First Nations communities and 75.6 for non-Indigenous communities for a gap of 22.1
• The average housing score was 70.6 for First Nations communities and 94.6 for non-Indigenous communities for a gap of 24
• The average education score was 40.2 for First Nations communities and 55.6 for non-Indigenous communities for a gap of 15.4

Each CWB component has undergone different changes over time.

Education

The education component represented the greatest shift in average CWB scores for First Nations communities between 1981 and 2016. Over this 35-year period, the average education score rose by 26.1 points, increasing from 14.1 points in 1981 to 40.2 points in 2016 (Figure 4). This growth was substantial and also comparable to the 27.2-point increase experienced by non-Indigenous communities. An examination of the most recent census periods offers evidence that this growth continued. Between 2011 and 2016, the average education score for First Nations communities increased by 3.7 points, compared to a 2.4-point increase among non-Indigenous communities.

With this in mind, the education gap has remained relatively stable between First Nations communities and non-Indigenous communities in recent years. In 2016, the education gap between these 2 community types was 15.5 points, which is slightly narrower than the gap reported in 2011.

Historical data point to a narrowing of the gap between 1981 and 2001. During this time, the education gap between First Nations and non-Indigenous communities narrowed slowly, approximately 1 point every 5 years.

Afterwards, between 2001 and 2006, the gap widened as a result of a large increase in the average education score for non-Indigenous communities. As mentioned above, this increase should be interpreted with caution due to the change in the census education questions.

Source: Statistics Canada, Censuses of Population, 1981 to 2006, 2016 and National Household Survey, 2011.

Description of Figure 4: Average education scores, First Nations and non-Indigenous communities, 1981 to 2016

This line graph compares the average education scores of First Nations and non-Indigenous communities in Canada between 1981 and 2016.

• First Nations communities had an average education score of 14.1 points in 1981, 23 points in 1991, 28 points in 1996, 31.4 points in 2001, 33.9 points in 2006, 36.5 points in 2011 and 40.2 points in 2016
• Non-Indigenous communities had an average education score of 28.4 points in 1981, 35.1 points in 1991, 38.6 points in 1996, 41.3 points in 2001, 49.3 points in 2006, 53.2 points in 2011 and 55.6 points in 2016

Education subcomponents: High school plus and university

Figures 5 and 6, respectively, illustrate changes in the 2 subcomponents of the education score: High school plus and university.

From 1981 to 2016, the average high school plus score for First Nations communities increased by 37.4 points (Figure 5). This growth was almost identical to the growth experienced by non-Indigenous communities (37.3 points). Average high school plus scores from the most recent census periods are also notable. Between 2011 and 2016, First Nations communities experienced a 5.1-point increase to their score on this subcomponent, while non-Indigenous communities' average score rose by a more modest 3.2 points.

While these recent high school plus scores may be indicative of a narrowing of the gap, it nevertheless remains significant in size. In 2016, 20.1 points stood between the high school plus scores of First Nations and non-Indigenous communities, representing a gap almost identical in size to what was observed in 1981 (20.2 points).

Source: Statistics Canada, Censuses of Population, 1981 to 2006, 2016 and National Household Survey, 2011.

Description of Figure 5: Average high school plus scores, First Nations and non-Indigenous communities, 1981 to 2016

This line graph compares the average high school plus scores, a constituent of the education score, of Indigenous and non-Indigenous communities in Canada between 1981 and 2016.

• First Nations communities had an average high school plus score of 19.9 points in 1981, 33.3 points in 1991, 40.2 points in 1996, 45.2 points in 2001, 48.6 points in 2006, 52.2 points in 2011 and 57.3 points in 2016
• Non-Indigenous communities had an average high school plus score of 40.1 points in 1981, 49.6 points in 1991, 54.3 points in 1996, 57.7 points in 2001, 69.2 points in 2006, 74.2 points in 2011 and 77.4 points in 2016

As illustrated by Figure 6, average university scores for both First Nations and non-Indigenous communities grew by only 0.9 points from 2011 to 2016. For First Nations communities, this growth represents the greatest increase to average university scores since the 1990s. Comparatively, for non-Indigenous communities, this slight increase represents the least growth between any 2 census periods examined.

The largest CWB gap in average university scores between First Nations and non-Indigenous communities was 6.2 points, which was observed in 2011 and more recently in 2016. This gap represents the largest gap between these 2 community types observed over the 35 years studied. The 2016 CWB university gap was more than double the gap recorded for 1981 (2.5 points).

Source: Statistics Canada, Censuses of Population, 1981 to 2006, 2016 and National Household Survey, 2011.

Description of Figure 6: Average university scores, First Nations and non-Indigenous communities, 1981 to 2016

This line graph compares the average university scores, a constituent of the education score, of First Nations and non-Indigenous communities in Canada between 1981 and 2016.

• First Nations communities had an average university score of 2.4 points in 1981, 2.4 points in 1991, 3.6 points in 1996, 3.9 points in 2001, 4.5 points in 2006, 5 points in 2011 and 5.9 points in 2016
• Non-Indigenous communities had an average university score of 4.9 points in 1981, 6.2 points in 1991, 7.3 points in 1996, 8.3 points in 2001, 9.5 points in 2006, 11.2 points in 2011 and 12.1 points in 2016

Labour force activity

Between 1981 and 2016, First Nations communities' average labour force activity score remained fairly stable. As illustrated by Figure 7, the average score increased by a few points during the 1990s and early 2000s, but between 2006 and 2016 this slight growth curtailed.

This decline in First Nations communities' average labour force activity score in 2006 and in 2011 warrants further consideration. Previous research indicates that Indigenous people in Canada were more affected by the economic downturn in 2008 (Usalcas, 2011, Statistics Canada, 2009). This research was conducted off reserve only, but it is reasonable to suspect that at minimum First Nations people living on reserve were similarly affected. The decline in the average labour force activity score in 2006 and in 2011 for First Nations communities could therefore reflect the impact of the 2008 downturn. Further, it is interesting to note that between 2011 and 2016, the labour force activity score of First Nations communities showed signs of recovery similar to the level in 1996, but still lower than the high achieved in 2006. Bearing this context, the labour force activity gap between First Nations and non-Indigenous communities has not experienced much change recently, although it is noteworthy that the gap in 2016 was 1.9 points greater than it was in 1981.

Source: Statistics Canada, Censuses of Population, 1981 to 2006, 2016 and National Household Survey, 2011.

Description of Figure 7: Average labour force activity scores, First Nations and non-Indigenous communities, 1981 to 2016

This line graph compares the average labour force activity scores of First Nations and non-Indigenous communities in Canada between 1981 and 2016.

• First Nations communities had an average labour force activity score of 67.5 points in 1981, 66 points in 1991, 69.4 points in 1996, 70.1 points in 2001, 71.4 points in 2006, 68.7 points in 2011 and 69.2 points in 2016
• Non-Indigenous communities had an average labour force activity score of 80.5 points in 1981, 82.3 points in 1991, 81.7 points in 1996, 83.2 points in 2001, 84.4 points in 2006, 84.5 points in 2011 and 84.1 points in 2016

Labour force activity subcomponents: Labour force participation and employment

Figures 8 and 9, respectively, illustrate changes in the 2 subcomponents of the labour force activity score: Labour Force Participation and Employment.

The average labour force participation score for First Nations communities fluctuated slightly over the 35 years studied and the 2016 score was 10 points higher than the score that was observed in 1981.

This rise in the labour force participation score is owed primarily to growth observed early on, between 1981 and 1991. This growth was followed by a period of stability that ended in 2006 when the average labour force participation score for First Nations' communities began to decline. The average score did not return to its 2006 levels.

The labour force participation gap has also experienced some marginal change. The 2016 average score represents a slight narrowing of the gap that corresponds with the recent labour force participation gains observed for First Nations communities.

Meanwhile, the labour force participation gap relative to non-Indigenous communities was 16.1 points wide in 2016.

Source: Statistics Canada, Censuses of Population, 1981 to 2006, 2016 and National Household Survey, 2011.

Description of Figure 8: Average labour force participation score, First Nations and non-Indigenous communities, 1981 to 2016

This line graph compares the average labour force participation scores, a constituent of the labour force activity score, of First Nations and non-Indigenous communities in Canada between 1981 and 2016.

• First Nations communities had an average labour force participation score of 52.1 points in 1981, 60.2 points in 1991, 65.3 points in 1996, 66.2 points in 2001, 65.5 points in 2006, 61.3 points in 2011 and 62.1 points in 2016
• Non-Indigenous communities had an average labour force participation score of 70.5 points in 1981, 78.3 points in 1991, 76.6 points in 1996, 77.6 points in 2001, 78.1 points in 2006, 78.3 points in 2011 and 78.2 points in 2016

Both First Nations and non-Indigenous communities experienced a decline to their average employment scores between 1981 and 1991 (Figure 9). While the average employment score for First Nations communities improved steadily between 1991 and 2006, by 2016 it still had not returned a level comparable to what was observed in 1981. In 2016, the average labour force participation score for First Nations communities was 76.3 points, compared to 82.9 points in 1981.

As Figure 9 illustrates, the CWB employment gap between First Nations and non-Indigenous communities widened in 1991 and has remained relatively stable since, fluctuating between 13 and 14 points across the subsequent CWB cycles.

Source: Statistics Canada, Censuses of Population, 1981 to 2006, 2016 and National Household Survey, 2011.

Description of Figure 9: Average employment score, First Nations and non-Indigenous communities, 1981 to 2016

This line graph compares the average employment scores, a constituent of the labour force activity score, of First Nations and non-Indigenous communities in Canada between 1981 and 2016.

• First Nations communities had an average employment score of 82.9 points in 1981, 71.8 points in 1991, 73.5 points in 1996, 74.1 points in 2001, 77.2 points in 2006, 76 points in 2011 and 76.3 points in 2016
• Non-Indigenous communities had an average employment score of 90.4 points in 1981, 86.5 points in 1991, 86.8 points in 1996, 88.8 points in 2001, 90.8 points in 2006, 90.7 points in 2011 and 90.1 points in 2016

Income

Between 1981 and 2016, the income component witnessed the second to largest growth recorded among the 4 CWB index components. The average income score for First Nations communities increased by 18.3 points over this 35-year time frame (Figure 10). Growth ran parallel to the 17.6 point increase in the average income score for non-Indigenous communities. This long-term trend remains consistent following the most recent cycle of the CWB. Between 2011 and 2016, the average income score for First Nations communities increased by 4.1 points, while the corresponding score for non-Indigenous communities increased by 3.6 points.

This steady growth in income score for both First Nations and non-Indigenous communities ensured that the income gap remained virtually unchanged over the years. In 2016, 22.1 points separated the average income scores of First Nations and non-Indigenous communities. This gap is similar in size to both the 1981 and 2011 income gaps observed.

Source: Statistics Canada, Censuses of Population, 1981 to 2006, 2016 and National Household Survey, 2011.

Description of Figure 10: Average income scores, First Nations and non-Indigenous communities, 1981 to 2016

This line graph compares the average income scores of First Nations and non-Indigenous communities in Canada between 1981 and 2016.

• First Nations communities had an average income score of 35.1 points in 1981, 40.7 points in 1991, 43.3 points in 1996, 46.1 points in 2001, 46.1 points in 2006, 49.3 points in 2011 and 53.5 points in 2016
• Non-Indigenous communities had an average income score of 58 points in 1981, 62.1 points in 1991, 62.1 points in 1996, 65.1 points in 2001, 67.7 points in 2006, 72 points in 2011 and 75.6 point in 2016

Housing

With the exception of some moderate growth during the 1980s and early 1990s, the housing scores for First Nations communities have remained fairly constant since 1996. As Figure 11 illustrates, the average housing score for First Nations communities was 70.6 points in 2016, which is an increase of 7.5 points from the 63.1 point average reported in 1981. Much of this growth is attributable to modest improvements to the average housing score achieved during the 1980s and 1990s. Between 2001 and 2016, the average housing score for First Nations communities changed very little.

The stable scores observed after 2001 resulted in a CWB housing gap of close to 20 points over the last 4 cycles of the index (2001 to 2016). In 2016, there was a 24-point housing gap between First Nations communities and non-Indigenous communities, which represented a slight 1.6 point increase from the gap observed in 2011.

Source: Statistics Canada, Censuses of Population, 1981 to 2006, 2016 and National Household Survey, 2011.

Description of Figure 11: Average housing scores, First Nations and non-Indigenous communities, 1981 to 2016

This line graph compares the average housing scores of First Nations and non-Indigenous communities in Canada between 1981 and 2016.

• First Nations communities had an average housing score of 63.1 points in 1981, 67.5 points in 1991, 70.2 points in 1996, 71.9 points in 2001, 70.1 points in 2006, 71.3 points in 2011 and 70.6 points in 2016
• Non-Indigenous communities had an average housing score of 91.2 points in 1981, 92.7 points in 1991, 93.1 points in 1996, 93.1 points in 2001, 93.8 points in 2006, 93.6 points in 2011 and 94.6 in 2016

Housing subcomponents: Housing quantity and quality

Figures 12 and 13, respectively, illustrate the impact of the 2 subcomponents that compose the housing score: Housing quantity (not crowded) and housing quality (not in need of major repair).

Between 1981 and 2016, First Nations communities experienced a substantial 29.9-point increase to their average housing quantity score. In 2016, there was a 17.8-point gap between the average housing quantity score for First Nations and non-Indigenous communities, representing a 24.3-point reduction from the 42.1-point housing quantity gap observed in 1981.

In contrast, during the same time period, their average housing quality score declined by 14.9 points. Since these subcomponents are equally weighted, these trend lines had opposite impacts on the overall housing score, which may explain why it has remained so stable. In 2016, a gap of 30.2 points separated the average housing quality scores for First Nations and non-Indigenous communities, representing a 16.1-point increase to the gap in housing quality since 1981.

Source: Statistics Canada, Censuses of Population, 1981 to 2006, 2016 and National Household Survey, 2011.

Description of Figure 12: Average housing quantity (not crowded), First Nations and non-Indigenous communities, 1981 to 2016

This line graph compares the average housing quantity scores, a constituent of the housing score, of First Nations and non-Indigenous communities in Canada between 1981 and 2016.

• First Nations communities had a housing quantity score of 50.8 points in 1981, 69.6 points in 1991, 73.3 points in 1996, 78.6 points in 2001, 80.6 points in 2006, 80.2 points in 2011 and 80.8 points in 2016
• Non-Indigenous communities had an average housing quantity score of 92.8 points in 1981, 97.6 points in 1991, 98.1 points in 1996, 98.5 points in 2001, 98.5 points in 2006, 98.2 points in 2011 and 98.5 points in 2016

Source: Statistics Canada, Censuses of Population, 1981 to 2006, 2016 and National Household Survey, 2011.

Description of Figure 13: Average housing quality (not in need of major repair), First Nations and non-Indigenous communities, 1981 to 2016

This line graph compares the average housing quality scores, a constituent of the housing score, of First Nations and non-Indigenous communities in Canada between 1981 and 2016.

• First Nations communities had an average housing quality score of 75.4 points in 1981, 65.4 points in 1991, 67.1 points in  996, 65.3 points in 2001, 59.6 points in 2006, 62.4 points in 2011 and 60.5 points in 2016
• Non-Indigenous communities had an average housing quality score of 89.5 points in 1981, 87.7 points in 1991, 88 points in 1996, 87.7 points in 2001, 89.2 points in 2006, 89.1 points in 2011 and 90.7 points in 2016

Changes to Community Well-Being component scores and gaps

Table 2 below presents a review of the trends in CWB components across community types and highlights the time required for changes in CWB average scores to impact corresponding gaps. Furthermore, the table provides a summary of the CWB components, including changes in average scores and gaps. The "score changes" column refers to changes over time to the CWB scores of First Nations communities. The "gap changes" column presents the changes over time in the gaps between the CWB scores of First Nations communities compared with non-Indigenous ones.

The gaps in Table 2 are based on unrounded numbers.

The Community Well-Being index by region

Average CWB scores for First Nations communities vary according to region (Figure 14). In 2016, First Nations communities in the territories had the highest average CWB score, while First Nations communities located in the Prairie provinces (Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta) had the lowest average CWB score. First Nations communities in the Prairie provinces also experienced the largest gap in average CWB score when compared to their non-Indigenous counterparts. In 2016, the CWB gap was smallest in the Atlantic region.

Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Canada, 2016.

Description of Figure 14: Average CWB scores by region, First Nations and non-Indigenous communities, 2016

This bar graph compares the average Community well-being (CWB) index scores of First Nations and non-Indigenous communities in Canada, 2016, by region.

• The average CWB score in the Atlantic region was 64.8 for First Nations communities and 74.8 for non-Indigenous communities
• The average CWB score in Quebec was 61.3 for First Nations communities and 76.5 for non-Indigenous communities
• The average CWB score in Ontario was 59.3 for First Nations communities and 79.1 for non-Indigenous communities
• The average CWB score in Manitoba was 49.3 for First Nations communities and 78 for non-Indigenous communities
• The average CWB score in Saskatchewan was 51 for First Nations communities and 79 for non-Indigenous communities
• The average CWB score in Alberta was 52.9 for First Nations communities and 79.6 for non-Indigenous communities
• The average CWB score in British Columbia was 62.9 for First Nations communities and 79.4 for non-Indigenous communities
• The average CWB score in territories was 66.3 for First Nations communities and 81.4 for non-Indigenous communities

As demonstrated in Figure 15, further examination of these regional CWB scores over time reveals several key points. The key changes can be summarized as follows:

• by 2011, First Nations communities in some regions had attained an average CWB score comparable to scores observed for some non-Indigenous communities as recently as 1996
• regional variability continues to be greater in First Nations communities than in non-Indigenous communities
• the relative disadvantage of First Nations communities in the Prairies has grown over time, particularly during the 2001 to 2006 period; both First Nations communities in Manitoba and Saskatchewan experienced a decline to their average CWB scores
• First Nations communities in Saskatchewan improved slightly more than First Nations communities in other regions between 2006 and 2011, comparable growth was not observed for First Nations communities in Manitoba
• all First Nations communities, with the exception of Ontario, experienced small increases in their average CWB scores from 2011 to 2016; the slight decrease is explained by the incomplete enumeration of 21 Ontario First Nations communities in 2011
• First Nations communities in Manitoba and British Columbia experienced the largest increases

Source: Statistics Canada, Censuses of Population, 1981 to 2006, 2016 and National Household Survey, 2011.

Description of Figure 15: Average CWB scores by region, First Nations and non-Indigenous communities, 1981 to 2016

This line graph the average CWB scores of First Nations and non-Indigenous communities over time by region in Canada between 1981 and 2016, using data from 7 different years.

The average CWB scores for First Nations communities were:

• in the Atlantic region: 48.3 in 1981, 52.6 in 1991, 57.4 in 1996, 58.7 in 2001, 62.2 in 2006, 62.5 in 2011 and 64.8 in 2016
• in Quebec: 44.8 in 1981, 47.3 in 1991, 52 in 1996, 57.1 in 2001, 58 in 2006, 58.3 in 2011 and 61.3 in 2016
• in Ontario: 46.6 in 1981, 51.7 in 1991, 52.8 in 1996, 56.6 in 2001, 57.8 in 2006, 60.1 in 2011 and 59.3 in 2016
• in Manitoba: 40.4 in 1981, 43.7 in 1991, 46.1 in 1996, 48 in 2001, 46.7 in 2006, 46.2 in 2011 and 49.3 in 2016
• in Saskatchewan: 38.8 in  1981, 42.5 in 1991, 46.3 in 1996, 48.9 in 2001, 47.3 in 2006, 50 in 2011 and 51 in 2016
• in Alberta: 44.5 in 1981, 43.8 in 1991, 48.6 in 1996, 48.7 in 2001, 49.9 in 2006, 51.4 in 2011 and 52.9 in 2016
• in British Columbia: 48.6 in 1981, 53.7 in 1991, 57.5 in 1996, 58.9 in 2001, 59.3 in 2006, 59.9 in 2011 and 62.9 in 2016
• in the territories: 46.1 in 1981, 56.5 in 1991, 60.0 in 1996, 62.9 in 2001, 63.4 in 2006, 64.3 in 2011 and 66.3 in 2016

The average CWB scores for non-Indigenous communities were:

• in the Atlantic region: 59.6 in 1981, 64.1 in 1991, 64.5 in 1996, 66.3 in 2001, 70.1 in 2006, 72.7 in 2011 and 74.8 in 2016
• in Quebec: 63.4 in 1981, 66.8 in 1991, 67.5 in 1996, 70.3 in 2001, 73.1 in 2006, 74.8 in 2011 and 76.5 in 2016
• in Ontario: 67.3 in 1981, 71.6 in 1991, 72.1 in 1996, 74.2 in 2001, 76.8 in 2006, 78 in 2011 and 79.1 in 2016
• in Manitoba: 63.6 in 1981, 67.7 in 1991, 68.5 in 1996, 69.9 in 2001, 73.1 in 2006, 76.4 in 2011 and 78 in 2016
• in Saskatchewan: 65.3 in 1981, 68 in 1991, 69.6 in 1996, 70.7 in 2001, 73.7 in 2006, 77.3 in 2011 and 79 in 2016
• in Alberta: 68 in 1981, 69.8 in 1991, 70.6 in 1996, 72.6 in 2001, 76.1 in 2006, 78.4 in 2011 and 79.6 in 2016
• in British Columbia: 70.2 in 1981, 72.5 in 1991, 73.5 in 1996, 74.1 in 2001, 77.2 in 2006, 78.1 in 2011 and 79.4 in 2016
• in the territories: 66.2 in 1981, 72.3 in 1991, 72.7 in 1996, 77.4 in 2001, 78.3 in 2006, 79.7 in 2011 and 81.4 in 2016

Recent regional changes, 2011 to 2016

To explore recent changes within the regions, average CWB scores were compared for the 2011 and 2016 iterations of the CWB index.

First Nations communities in all of the regions experienced an increase in average CWB scores between 2011 and 2016. The British Columbia and Manitoba regions increased the most, with the Ontario region experiencing the least change.

Source: Statistics Canada, Censuses of Population, 1981 to 2006, 2016 and National Household Survey, 2011

Description of Figure 16: Regional average CWB score changes by First Nations and non-Indigenous communities, 2011 to 2016

This bar graph compares the average change in CWB scores of First Nations and non-Indigenous communities by region in Canada between 2011 and 2016.

• The average change in CWB scores for First Nations communities in the Atlantic region was 1.8 points
• The average change in CWB scores for First Nations communities in the Quebec region was 1.9 points
• The average change in CWB scores for First Nations communities in the Ontario region was 1 point
• The average change in CWB scores for First Nations communities in the Manitoba region was 3 points
• The average change in CWB scores for First Nations communities in the Saskatchewan region was 1.3 points
• The average change in CWB scores for First Nations communities in the Alberta region was 1.4 points
• The average change in CWB scores for First Nations communities in the British Columbia region was 3.1 points
• The average change in CWB scores for First Nations communities in the territories region was 2.5 points
• The average change in CWB scores for non-Indigenous communities in the Atlantic region was 2.1 points
• The average change in CWB scores for non-Indigenous communities in the Quebec region was 1.7 points
• The average change in CWB scores for non-Indigenous communities in the Ontario region was 1.1 points
• The average change in CWB scores for non-Indigenous communities in the Manitoba region was 1.4 points
• The average change in CWB scores for non-Indigenous communities in the Saskatchewan region was 1.8 points
• The average change in CWB scores for non-Indigenous communities in the Alberta region was 1.2 points
• The average change in CWB scores for non-Indigenous communities in the British Columbia region was 1.4 points
• The average change in CWB scores for non-Indigenous communities in the territories region was 1.8 points

Progress for low-scoring communities

Further examination of community-level progress indicates that an increasing number of First Nations communities have experienced a dramatic increase in their overall CWB scores. Figure 17 illustrates, between 1981 and 2016, the proportion of First Nations communities with low (less than 50 points) CWB scores declined from 70% to 22%, or by 48 percentage points.

Source: Statistics Canada, Censuses of Population, 1981 to 2006, 2016 and National Household Survey, 2011

Description of Figure 17: Cumulative Distribution of First Nations communities' CWB scores, 1981 to 2016

This line graph presents the percentage of First Nations communities that had CWB scores that were less than 50 by census year.

• In 1981, 70% of First Nations communities had a CWB score that was less than 50
• In 1991, 53% of First Nations communities had a CWB score that was less than 50
• In 1996, 40% of First Nations communities had a CWB score that was less than 50
• In 2001, 30% of First Nations communities had a CWB score that was less than 50
• In 2006, 31% of First Nations communities had a CWB score that was less than 50
• In 2011, 27% of First Nations communities had a CWB score that was less than 50
• In 2016, 22% of First Nations communities had a CWB score that was less than 50

Figure 18 illustrates how First Nations and non-Indigenous communities are distributed by CWB score. The distribution of scores for First Nations communities is flatter and wider than that of non-Indigenous communities, indicating that well-being varies more among First Nations communities. Specifically, the standard deviation of First Nations communities' CWB scores (10.3 points) is more than double that of non-Indigenous communities' scores (5 points).

Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Canada, 2016.

Description of Figure 18: CWB Distributions, First Nations and non-Indigenous communities, 2016

This bar graph compares the distribution of scores for First Nations and non-Indigenous communities on the Community Well-Being (CWB) index in Canada, 2016.

The average score for First Nations communities is 58.4.

The average score for non-Indigenous communities is 77.5.

• 0% of First Nations communities fall between 25 and 30 points
• 0.48% of First Nations communities fall between 30 and 35 points
• 2.57% of First Nations communities fall between 35 and 40 points
• 5.78% of First Nations communities fall between 40 and 45 points
• 13.32% of First Nations communities fall between 45 and 50 points
• 14.77% of First Nations communities fall between 50 and 55 points
• 13% of First Nations communities fall between 55 and 60 points
• 21.67% of First Nations communities fall between 60 and 65 points
• 14.29% of First Nations communities fall between 65 and 70 points
• 8.51% of First Nations communities fall between 70 and 75 points
• 4.01% of First Nations communities fall between 75 and 80 points
• 1.12% of First Nations communities fall between 80 and 85 points
• 0.48% of First Nations communities fall between 85 and 90 points
• 0% of First Nations communities fall between 90 and 95 points
• 0% of First Nations communities fall between 95 and 100 points
• 0% of non-Indigenous communities fall between 35 and 40 points
• 0.05% of non-Indigenous communities fall between 40 and 45 points
• 0% of non-Indigenous communities fall between 45 and 50 points
• 0.13% of non-Indigenous communities fall between 50 and 55 points
• 0.24% of non-Indigenous communities fall between 55 and 60 points
• 0.95% of non-Indigenous communities fall between 60 and 65 points
• 4.26% of non-Indigenous communities fall between 65 and 70 points
• 18.38% of non-Indigenous communities fall between 70 and 75 points
• 40.33% of non-Indigenous communities fall between 75 and 80 points
• 30.07% of non-Indigenous communities fall between 80 and 85 points
• 5.05% of non-Indigenous communities fall between 85 and 90 points
• 0.53% of non-Indigenous communities fall between 90 and 95 points
• 0% of non-Indigenous communities fall between 95 and 100 points

Figure 19 also highlights the greater variability in well-being among First Nations communities. In 2016, 95% of First Nations communities are dispersed over a 39-point range (from a low of 39 points to a high of 78 points), while the same percentage of non-Indigenous communities scored within a CWB range of 20 points (from a low of 66 points to a high of 86 points).

Outliers, defined as the 2.5% of communities with the lowest scores and the 2.5% of communities with the highest scores, are excluded. Excluding these extreme tails is standard practice when comparing relatively normal distributions.

Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Canada, 2016.

Description of Figure 19: Range of CWB Score, Canada, 2016 (excluding outliers)

This bar graph shows the ranges for the Community Well-Being (CWB) index scores of First Nations and non-Indigenous communities in Canada, 2016.

• The CWB index scores of First Nations communities ranged from a low of 39 to a high of 78 for an average score of 58.4 points
• The CWB index scores of non-Indigenous communities ranged from a low of 66 to a high of 86 for an average score of 77.5 points